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Epictetus (c. 50-138) Stoic moral philosopher who established a school of philosophy after being freed as a slave. His Manual teaches that only by detaching ourselves from what is not in our power can we attain freedom.
Epicurus (341-270 B.C.) Founder of the Epicurean philosophy and a follower of Democritus, founder of atomism. Virtually all of Epicurus's writings are lost.
Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich (1770-1831) German philosopher whose idealistic system of metaphysics was highly influential; it was based on a concept of the world as a single organism developing by its own inner logic through trios of stages called "thesis, antithesis, and synthesis" and gradually coming to embody reason. Hegel held the monarchy to be the highest development of the state. His works include Logic and Phenomenology of Mind .
Heidegger, Martin (1889-1976) German philosopher who studied with Husserl. Heidegger's own philosophy, which was influenced by Kierkegaard, emphasized the need to understand "being," especially the unique ways that humans act in and relate to the world. He wrote Being and Time .
Heraclitus (c. 535-475 B.C.) Pre-Socratic philosopher opposed to the idea of a single ultimate reality. Heraclitus believed that all things are in a constant state of change.
Hobbes, Thomas (1588-1679) English materialist and empiricist, one of the founders of modern political philosophy. In the Leviathan, Hobbes argued that because men are selfish by nature, a powerful absolute rules is necessary. In a "social contract," men agree to give up many personal liberties and accept such rule.
Hume, David (1711-76) British empiricist whose arguments against the proofs for God's existence are still influential. In his Treatise of Human Nature, Hume held that moral beliefs have no basis in reason, but are based solely on custom.
Husserl, Edmund (1859-1938) German philosopher who founded the phenomenology movement. He aimed at a completely accurate description of consciousness and conscious experience. His works include Logical Investigations and Ideas for a Pure Phenomenology .
James, William (1842-1910) American philosopher and psychologist, one of the founders of pragmatism, and one of the most influential thinkers of his era. James viewed consciousness as actively shaping reality, defined truth as "the expedient" way of thinking, and held that ideas are tools for guiding our future actions rather than reproductions of our past experiences. His writings include The Will to Believe and Pragmatism .
Kant, Immanuel (1724-1804) German philosopher, possibly the most influential of modern times. He synthesized Leibniz's rationalism and Hume's skepticism into his "critical philosophy": in The Critique of Pure Reason , he wrote that ideas do not conform to the external world, but rather the world can be known only insofar as it conforms to the mind's own structure. In The Critique of Practical Reason , Kant claimed that morality requires a belief in God, freedom, and immortality, although these can be proved neither scientifically nor by metaphysics. Finally, in his Metaphysic of Morals , he presented the concept of the categorical imperative.
Kierkegaard, Søren (1813-55) Danish philosopher, religious thinker, and extraordinarily influential founder of existentialism. Kierkegaard held that "truth is subjectivity," that religion is an individual matter, and that man's relationship to God requires suffering. He wrote Either/Or and Fear and Trembling .
Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm (1646-1716) German philosopher, diplomat, and mathematician, one of the great minds of all time. Leibniz was an inventor (with Sir Isaac Newton) of the calculus and a forefather of modern mathematical logic. He held that the entire universe is one large system expressing God's plan. His writings include New Essays on Human Understanding .
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